What effect does socioeconomic status have on the voting behavior of Essay

What effect does socioeconomic status have on the voting behavior of blacks - Essay Example rent paper focuses on the examination of the possible effects of socioeconomic status on the development of a particular voting behavior by black people. The literature and the empirical research presented throughout this paper prove that the voting behavior of black people around the world can be influenced by a series of factors; socioeconomic status has been found to have a role in the development of specific voting decisions by black people. Of course, the dependence of voting behavior on specific social, political and financial factors cannot be doubted; however, it seems that this influence is stronger in the case of minorities or people with a specific racial background. Regarding the structure of the specific paper it should be noticed that a general presentation of the factors influenced the voting behavior of the public is used in order to introduce the issue under examination and explain the reasons for which the effects of the socioeconomic status on the voting behavior o f black people can have a long lasting effect. As already noticed above, the voting behavior of all people around the world is influenced by specific factors. The above phenomenon has been extensively studied in the literature and many different views have been stated. In accordance with Bass et al. (1998, online article) ‘it is important to consider the effect of residential mobility on registration and voting behavior; movers resemble stayers on motivational factors related to voting; the requirement that citizens must register anew after each change in residence constitutes a key stumbling block in the path of a trip to the polls (Squire, Wolfinger, Glass, 1987 in Bass et al., 1998, online article). In accordance with the above, the voting behavior of citizens can present different characteristics in accordance with the political and the social conditions of a particular era; in the same context, when specific factors are used in order to alternate the voting behavior of people

Can Alternative Energy Replace Fossil Fuels An Environmental Sciences Essay

Can Alternative Energy Replace Fossil Fuels An Environmental Sciences Essay At the beginning of the 21st century people started to realize that fossil fuels are not renewable and they are consumed too quickly so people believe that there will not be a source for future generations. Activists try to tell people about the consequences of lack of energy in terms of economy or environment, so consciousness of the situation increases each day with the help of activists. However, the public and also the government do not do anything to amend this situation. Professor Emeritus of History, Geography, and American Studies at the University of Texas, Alfred W. Crosby asserts that Alternative sources of energy can become a satisfactory substitute for fossil fuels such as coal, oil, petroleum and diesel if we put as much effort and genius in the effort as we did in producing the first atomic bomb(alternativeenergy.procon.org , para 3). However some others believe that alternative energy cannot meet our need sufficiently. Also its hard to find a suitable place and the hi gh technology to build this kind of structure. There are both pros and cons about using alternative energy which makes it difficult to find the most reliable way, however considering all these various approaches, we can conclude that fossil fuels are more harmful. There are many type of carbon based source which contain huge amount of energy such as coal, oil, natural gas. They are most common source to create energy. Especially in Turkey almost all energy comes from fossil fuels (%99.6). There are some specific places to produce such as Zonguldak for coal or Batman for oil. Underground coal mining sector very taught because working condition is disaster but, people have to work this job because of unemployment. However coal mining have enormous dangerous for health because it cause lung disease. Also cause deaths due to underground coal-mining accidents have been recorded officially since 1941, and a total of 3094 deaths were reported between 1941 and 2003(Kucuker,1). Although this kind of evidence, both government and companies not take any precaution about disasters. Almost the same situation happens in Batman which has most of oil source in Turkey. Some worker suffer from similar problem like health and condition, because they do not know their right in terms of both health and safety even if they are aware of their right companies employ worker on daily-bases so they can not seek their right consequently companies exploit worker easily. In the beginning of industrial age, countries used fossil fuels for their own development without thought about its effect on people and the environment. They also ignored pollution and damage to the environment but this careless behaviour has caused irreversible consequences such as greenhouse effect of burning fossil fuels traps the concentration of carbon dioxide so this also increase heat as a result global warming occur. Therefore people should work together to establish non-governmental organizations to prevent violation and unnecessary usage, because the world supply will not be enough for the next generation. Professor of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, M. S. Dresselhaus also emphasised that fossil fuels currently supply most of the worlds energy needs, world reserves of oil are about 1.61014   (11012  barrels). World consumption is about 1.21010  a day. World reserves of natural gas are about 1.41014  m3; gross production of gas is about 2.41012  m3  per y ear. World coal reserves are about 9.11011  tonnes; annual consumption is about 4.5109  tonnes per year. However unacceptable their long-term consequence, he assert that the supplies are likely to remain adequate for the next few generations. Scientists and policy makers must make use of this period of grace to assess alternative sources of energy and determine what is scientifically possible, environmentally acceptable and technologically promising. Briefly fossil fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear power supply most of the worlds energy needs in today world but they are not adequate for future generation without alternative energy. The world has many alternative energy sources such as wind, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, and bio fuels are possible energy type which can replace fossil fuels. Like fossil fuels these energy types have several advantages and disadvantages. Wind and solar power cause no pollution and are renewable and also wind and solar power are free. The only cost of solar and wind power is the installation and construction of the structure. Nevertheless, both wind and solar energy is inconsistent. It means wind intensity or sunny weather can change. Moreover geothermal energy built upon steam power so they drill holes in the steamy area and steam caused shoot up and drive turbines. Geothermal central should build correctly otherwise harmful gases and mineral can be released. Furthermore, hydroelectric central work with the help of accumulation of water so energy production is constant. However construction of dam is very expensive and sometimes especially in Turkey dam can damage historical p lace like Hasankeyf in the east of Turkey. Lastly like wind and solar power bio fuels is renewable. Ethanol is the main element of creating energy which is made from corn. It decreases the usage of gas but cost of conversion very expensive. In addition, Some countries realize the variety of alternative energy and pay attention to these. Spain and Germany are very serious about creating alternative energy. They use many kind of alternative energy but lost of countries just use hydroelectrical energy in the name of alternative energy. However they do not realize that for example solar energy more powerful than hydroelectrical energy. Dieter Eissel assert that the sun radiates 174 peta-watts (PW). Of this, about 30 percent is re ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ected back to space, while the rest is absorbed by atmosphere, clouds, oceans and land masses. The total volume of radiation absorbed by oceans and lands reaches up to 89 PW. Therefore, solar energy can provide 2,850 times more energy than current world demand. In comparison, the multiple for hydro power is 3, 5 for geothermal, 20 for biomass, and 200 for wind energy (Fischedick, 2000). This means that all nations need the solar radiation of just one day to meet their energy demands for a whole year. However, settle that kind of energy source is very expensive and little utopian. Nevertheless still reducing fossil fuels help prevent the pollution. According to one of the most comprehensive plans for future sustainable energy provision launched in June 2010 by Greenpeace and the European Renewable Energy Council (EREC), a sustainable World Energy Outlook provides a detailed practical blueprint for cutting carbon emissions while achieving economic growth by replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy and energy efficiency (Eissel, 4). Also, there are some kinds of energy types which are related to fossil fuels but not that much harm such as natural gas and nuclear power. Natural gas release methane gas instead of carbon dioxide and methane gas does not cause greenhouse effect it increases the amount of natural gas reserves a little bit higher than fossil fuels. Nuclear power creates a huge amount of energy however risk also very high because if plants accidentally release something its damage may be catasrophic. In the end although fossil fuels have the possibility of least harm to the environment is still a risk. Therefore alternative energy must be encouraged by government and the public. Otherwise countries will start to fight each other because of lack of resource of fossil fuel in fact they already start to fight as resource become limited and countries may occupy an oil-rich country under the name of peace or some unethical reason to take control of oil-reserves. On the other hand, some people claim that the world has enough fossil fuel supplies for at least 2-3 decades. They think that this issue not of great urgency. At the same time they believe alternative energy is not sufficient and enough to meet peoples needs. To exemplify, gas is much more efficient than electrical energy and also filling the cars petrol tank quicker than charging an electrical car. Critics also state that wind power or solar power is not easy to construct everywhere. They can only be built in a suitable place to be efficient. For instance wind turbines  must be built in a windy area to create energy, this means where wind turbines can be constructed is a little restricted. Likewise solar energy is useful in countries which have many hours of direct sunlight. In this situations, as the cost of construction increase also the efficiency decrease. Taking all these points into consideration, we can arrive at the conclusion that alternative energy should be a convenient energy source for future generation, because there is no other option for future generation nobody can claim that fossil fuels will last forever, this generation should regulate the usage alternative energy and also pay attention to the environment. Otherwise fossil fuel become most valuable things in the world and lots of people not allow or afford to benefit from it. Work Cited http://alternativeenergy.procon.org Dresselhaus, M.S., and I.L. Thomas. Alternative energy technologies.  Nature  414.6861 (2001): 332.Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 23 Dec. 2010. Kucuker, Hudaverdi. Occupational fatalities among coal mine workers in Zonguldak, Turkey, 1994-2003.  Occupational Medicine  56.2 (2006): 144-146.  Environment Complete. EBSCO. Web. 23 Dec. 2010. Park, Sang-Chul, and Dieter Eissel. Alternative Energy Policies in Germany with particular Reference to Solar Energy.  Journal of Contemporary European Studies  18.3 (2010): 323-339.  Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 23 Dec. 2010. Fischedick, M. ,  Langniss, O. and  Nitsch, J. (2000)  Nach dem Ausstieg-Zukunftskurs Erneuerbare Energie  Hirzel-Verlag , Stuttgart

Adaptation Syndrome :: essays research papers

What Is General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) General Adaptation Syndrome is a theory formulated in 1936 by Dr. Hans Seyle, a celebrated figure in the field of stress research. Gas depicts the process of prolonged exposure to stress by separating behaviors into 3 stages. The Alarm Reaction, Resistance and Exhaustion Stage. This behavioral model is such a valuable tool in the study of stress research because it explains both the physiological and psychological effects of stress on the human body. The Alarm Reaction Stage All Stress is caused by external stimuli; the immediate response to these challenges or threats is the Alarm Reaction stage. In the A.R.S. this perception of a threatening situation caused by the brain sends biochemical messages to various parts of the body, resulting in bodily changes such as increased or irregular heart beats, shallow fast-breathing or muscle tension (refer to appendix xxx). It is this physical reactions that characterize this early stage is the GAS model. (Author, pg#).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dr. Selye preformed most of the early work on the adaptation syndrome. His experiments in general looked at harmful stimuli on the response of the body. In an experiment, Seyle exposed a large number of rats to a refrigerated room where the temperature was near freezing,(Author pg#) â€Å"†¦during the first 48 hours they developed the typical manifestations of the alarm reaction. This was proved by killing ten animals at the end of the second day; all of them had large fat-free adrenals, small thymuses, and stomach ulcers.† (Seyle, 1956; 88). This experiment conducted illustrated the vast number of physical changes the body undergoes in stressful situations.

Critical Issues of Soil Erosion Problems

Soil quality is one of the most basic and perhaps least understood indicators of land health. Soil supports plant growth and represents the living reservoir that buffers the flows of water, nutrients, and energy through an ecosystem. The ongoing degradation of the earth†s soils by human activity, particularly agriculture, threatens human potential to feed a growing population. The annual global erosion amounts to about 36 billion tons, of which 10 billion are due to natural causes and 26 billion are the result of human activity (Crosson et al. 995). The soil or runoff that has been eroded ends up in groundwater, lakes, streams, and rivers. The deposits of excess soil and the contaminates in it, cause further ecological complications. Bodies of water need to be dredged and monitored for contamination. Water levels are lowered with the increasing soil eroded into them, making our world†s water supply a concern directly related to the erosion of soil. The process of soil renewing itself is largely unknown. However, there is consensus on the need for conservation. Evaluating the scope of the problem or predicting the effects that various solutions might have on agriculture and the environment is very difficult. Degradation is gauged for all soil in terms of compaction, erosion, nutrient loss and loss of organic matter. Soil quality refers to the capacity of a soil to perform these beneficial functions. Its texture, structure, water-holding capacity, porosity, organic matter content, and depth, among other properties determine a soil†s quality. Because soils naturally vary in their capacity to perform these functions, we must tie our understanding of soil quality to landscapes and land use. We must understand soil quality for two important reasons: First, we must match our use and management of land to soil capability. Second, we must establish understanding about soil quality so we can recognize ongoing trends. If soil quality is stable or improving, we have a good indicator that the ecosystem is sustainable. If soil quality is deteriorating, the larger ecosystem will almost certainly decline with it (Wilken 1995, Mirzamoatafa et al. 1998). Many conservation efforts are being taken to control soil erosion. In order to do this a universal language is need to measure soil erosion, texture, and the potential for erosion. Soil loss tolerance (â€Å"T†) is the amount of a given soil that can be displaced by water or wind erosion each year and be replenished through natural soil regeneration processes. This is a basis for evaluating the impacts of soil erosion and develops objectives for conservation treatment. Erosion at rates greater than T is a special concern because it threatens agricultural sustainability. Enrichment Ratios (ER) often used as a measure of the nutrients available for soil. It is a ratio of the intrinsic potential for soil displacement from erosion to the â€Å"T† limit (Baffaut et al 1998). From 1991 to 1992 in Central Kenya†s highlands, these formulas were used to monitor runoff, soil loss, and enrichments of eroded soil material. Annual rainfall was 948 and 1125 mm for 1991 and 1992. Soil loss ranged from 0. 8 to 247. 3 tons, and runoff ranged from 1 to 89 mm. The enrichment ratios (ER) were [greater than or equal to] 1 and sediments were mostly enriched with P and Na. The P and Na concentrations were 4 to 10 and 2 to 3 times the source material. Sediment from the plots was 247 to 936% richer in P than the soil from which it originated. Too much P can have negative effects on the plant and wildlife surrounding it. Changes in soil pH, percentage organic C, and percentage total N following erosion were significantly correlated with cumulative soil loss (r values of 0. 77, 0. 59, and 0. 71, n = 20). The data indicated that the unbalancing of nutrients in the soil is due to erosion, and one of the major causes of soil fertility depletion of Kenyan soils (Gachene et. al. 1997). The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) estimates average annual soil loss from sheet and till erosion. The equation is: A=RKLSCP, where A is the computed soil loss per unit area, R is a rainfall factor, K is a soil erodibility factor, L is a slope length factor, S is a slope degree factor, C is a crop practice factor, and P is a conservation practice factor (Baffaut et al 1998). Data from erosion plots in Tarija suggest only moderate rates of erosion (200tons-per. yr. ). Data at 6-min intervals for 41 sites in the tropics of Australia were used to compute the rainfall and runoff factor (R-factor) for the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), and a daily rainfall erosivity model was validated for these tropical sites. Mean annual rainfall varies from about 300 mm at Jervois to about 4000 at Tully. For these tropical sites, both rainfall and rainfall erosivity are highly seasonal. The daily erosivity model performed better for the tropical sites with a marked wet season in summer in comparison to model performance in temperate regions of Australia where peak rainfall and peak rainfall erosivity may occur in different seasons (Yu 1998). The Wind factor must be considered when evaluating soil erosion. Plant nutrients are transported in windblown sediment. The Wind Erosion Equation (WEQ) is designed to predict long-term average annual soil losses from a field having specific characteristics. The equation is E=f (IKCLV), where E is the estimated average annual soil loss, I is the soil erodibility, K is the ridge roughness factor, C is the climatic factor, L is the equivalent unsheltered distance across the field along the prevailing wind erosion direction, and V is the equivalent vegetative cover (Baffaut et al. 1998). As validation for the Wind Erosion equation (WEQ) two field sites were established in southern Alberta (one in 1990, one in 1993). At Site 1, total N in windblown sediment trapped at 25-cm height showed an average (13 events) enrichment ratio of 1. 11, while organic C in windblown sediment showed an average enrichment ratio of only 1. 02 compared with soil from the erodible surface. At Site 2, the average (4 events) total N enrichment ratio was 1. 08 and the average organic C (carbon) enrichment ratio was 1. 05. The results provide further evidence that every effort should be to prevent erosion of the thin layer of surface soil that ensures the future sustainability of agriculture (Baffaut et. al. 1998). These examples of using universal formulas to measure soil erosion allow scientists to evaluate an area and compare efforts that are working else where and apply them to areas were soil erosion is in need of being lessened. During last 40 years, nearly one-third of the world land has been lost by erosion. This loss continues at a rate of more than 10 million hectares per year. The world population†s food demand is increasing at a time when per capita food productivity is beginning to decline (Pimentel et al. 1995). If conditions leading to famine are to be avoided, land that produces food must be preserved. The ecological food web links plants, animals, and people must live in harmony with the planet†s water, soil, and atmosphere. Once those connections are severed the hunger web begins. To avoid these devastating effects, steps must be taking in all aspects of ecology. The greatest impact of soil erosion is farming practices that are ignorant to overall effects on the food web. The key to farming is to grow enough food for all of your people. When towns were made up of small farms this goal was more easily obtainable. When people stop farming, food production then became an industry where money takes precedent over soil. Because of demand and economic reason farmers in the United States are destroying delicate balances in nature and drastically altering the landscape so that soil is at risk of erosion, and is eroded faster than it can be formed. (Pimentel, Resosudarmo1995) Agricultural practices of cropping and tillage are two important factors that influence runoff and soil losses. Much research had been done to show the effects of different tilling and crop rotations on soil erosion. Doyle†s (1996) research concluded that between 1982 and 1992 the US improved or at least had no increase in average erosion rates in most areas with extensive cropland. Some of the improvement found was the result of crops being rotated and better tiling methods. Brown (et al 1998) investigated the effects of combining whey and straw in croplands. This research found that straw or whey alone reduces soil loss by 60-85 percent. When combined they reduce soil loss by 96- 98 percent. Ghidey and Alberts (1998) found through a study in Kansas that the annual runoff and soil losses from soybean cropping were slightly higher than those for corn. These studies and others like them have provided the knowledge of how to prevent further soil erosion. The Conservation Reserve Program pays farmers to remove or add environmentally sensitive crops to their croplands (Ghidey, Alberts 1998). There are many casualties of conventional chemical farming: erosion, a decline in soil quality, water purity, weakened crop resistance to pests and diseases, and the safety of farm workers. According to US News & World Report, 9/14/92, an excess of $4 billion a year is spent on pesticides, fungicides, and herbicides Chemical farmers are still losing about a third of their crops each year to insects, diseases, and weeds. Because of tilling practices, these chemicals used in farming not only effect the food produced and ground water but also the places where the runoff is deposited. Herbicide loss by runoff is a world wide problem. These contaminated runoffs kill a variety of wildlife, aquatic life forms, and many species of vegetation. An economical and environmental alternative to conventional farming is organic crop production. Organic farming is a soil management system that maintains and replenishes soil fertility. Organic foods are produced without the use of synthetic pesticides or fertilizers. The strategy behind organic crop production is to produce food crops which are â€Å"processed, packaged, transported, and stored so as to retain maximum nutritional value without the use of artificial preservatives, coloring, or other additives. Allowable management techniques include: the use of cover crops, manures, and composts for soil fertility management, the use of mulches, hand or mechanical cultivation, and crop rotation for weed management, and production scheduling and crop selection for disease and insect management. Organic farming is not as easy or as productive as conventional farming, especially on infertile sandy soils. To be successful, an organic farmer requires a sound knowledge of soil type, crop management and the incidence of pests and diseases in different seasons (Arden-Clarke et al 1987). Organic production preferably should be combined with systems not usually used in agriculture such as cover crops and livestock farming. This requires a larger area than the normal agricultural holding, which must be chosen carefully. The Department of Agriculture (Elliott et al. 1987) certifies organic production systems. Certification involves the development of an organic plan for the operation, the plan to be evaluated and approved by an accredited agent, and the agreement of the farmer to abide by the list of approved substances. The organic agent also reviews soil and water tests, crop histories, production, and rotation plans. The area in which organic crops are to be grown must be chemical free for 3 years. They verify compliance with standards through annual and spot inspections, and record keeping requirements (Elliott et al. 1987). Consumers are demanding organically grown fruit and vegetables, and are willing to pay a higher price. The sales of organic products have increased from $178 million to over $4 billion in 1998, and is growing in excess of 20% per year. These operations will focus on the production of lettuce, tomatoes, and cucumbers (Us News &World 1998). There is a demand for certified organic vegetables, especially with the new health awareness of the public. As with any type of farming, there is the risk of unfavorable weather and invasive pests, which could, reduced a season†s crop. Economics may be a large controlling factor for soil erosion. . When demand for grain increases, and supply decreases, price for food will increase. Americans can afford to pay a few cents extra for bread, horse food, and rice but poorer countries will suffer when food becomes too expensive. Although the United States has been referred to as the â€Å"bread basket† of the world because of our impressive food production, our history constituted prolific amounts of soil erosion. During the 1930†³s dust clouds forced people from their homes, killed humans and animals alike, and caused snow in Vermont to be black. Agricultural economists are aware that severely eroded soils are less productive–if too much soil is lost, the next planting and harvest are delayed. Soils are less productive if crop planting has to be delayed. Instead of harvesting five times in one season, farmers might only reap three. Severely eroded soils have deficiencies in nutrient, bacteria, alterations in structure, and decreased resistance to pests. Continuously planting row crops, corn for example, can cause severe soil loss. Sustainable agriculture can prevent or lessen soil erosion and ensure higher productivity (Gardner 1996). Our county†s high demand for grain forces farmers to over work their land. The demand for this grain and the human consumption of grown vegetation are not the only factors leading to soil erosion. The beef industry and our consumption of red meat impacts soil erosion as well. Of the total amount of grain that is grown in the US, 80% of it is fed to livestock. To support our meat centered diet, 260 million acres of U. S. forest must be cleared to create cropland for livestock (Gardner1996). Costa Rican produced beef is even more devastating to the environment. For every ? lb. of Costa Rican beef made, one acre of Costa Rican rainforest must be destroyed. This devastation is worsened by the deaths of all the plant and animal species that occur due to habitat loss (Gardner1996). Because of the above reasons and several other moral, nutritional, and economical reasons, beef consumption is bad for the environment. Every individual who switches to a purely vegetarian diet (Gardner1996) spares one acre of trees each year. The factor of agricultural practices on soil erosion becomes more severe when forests, grasslands, and wetlands are destroyed. Roots from trees in forests, grasslands, and wetlands stabilize soil not only by holding earth, but also by intercepting precipitation, dispersing energy of raindrops, and by increasing infiltration and reducing runoff (Smith 1998). Native Americans have used good agriculture practices for years. American Indians had respect for the land and all of its life forms. One of their cultural beliefs about farming is centered on the three sisters: corn, squash, and beans. The corn provides a stalk for beans to climb. Beans produce nitrogen that fertilizes the corn. And squash protects the soil and corn roots from the sun, traps moisture, and prevents erosion. All three plants provide edible food, while preserving soil. (Wilken 1995) It is essential to the survival of the human race, and all other life forms that several forms of soil conservation practices are used. There is a finite amount of food that our country can produce before our production starts to decrease. Although erosion is a natural process, humans have found several unnatural ways to make soil erosion more severe. To be able to continue to feed the growing population and preserve the species diversity of wildlife and plants we need to have sustainable agriculture practices and soil conservation these efforts are crucial in the prevention of extensive soil erosion.

Malaysian Cyber Law and Electronic Government Law

SMK GERIK JALAN KUALA KENDERONG 33300 GERIK. PERAK CONSTRUCT CODE: LA3. S07. 1 CURRENT AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT IN NETWORKS AND COMMUNICATIONS CANDIDATE’S NAME:NURUL SHAZLIN BINTI SULAIMAN CANDIDATE’S IC:960717-06-5978 ASSESSOR’S NAME:NOR AZLINA BINTI OTHMAN ASSESSOR’S SIGNATURE: DATE OF SUBMISSION: Index Bil | Content| Page| 1| Introduction | 4| 2| Mobile Computing| | | 2. 1 Definition| 5| | 2. 2 Specifications, Services, and Frequencies of Mobile Computing| 5| 3| Internet Technology and Services| | | 3. 1 VoIP| 6| | 3. 2 BLOG| 6| 4| Types of Network| | | 4. 1 PAN| 7| | 4. 2 VPN| 7| | 4. 3 WLAN| 8| | 4. 4 WIMAX| 8| | Conclusion| 9| | Reference| 9| 1. INTRODUCTION 2. MOBILE COMPUTING 3. 1. Definiton 3. 2. Specification, services, and frequencies of Mobile Computing 3. INTERNET TECHNOLOGY AND SERVICES 4. 3. VoIP 4. 4. BLOG 4. TYPES OF NETWORK 5. 5. PAN 5. 6. VPN 5. 7. WLAN 5. 8. WIMAX 5. CONCLUSION REFERENCE 1. 0 INTRODUCTION A computer network and communicat ion is defined  as a collection of computers and devicesconnected by communications channels that facilitates communications among users and allowsusers to share resources with other users. Computer Network A computer network is a system of interconnected computers and peripheral devices.For example, it may connect computers, printers, scanners and cameras. Using hardware and software, these interconnected computing devices can communicate with each other through defined rules of data communications. In a network, computers can exchange and share information and resources. A computer network may operate on wired connections or wireless connections. When two or more networks are linked or connected and are able to communicate with one another using suitable hardware and software, it is called an internetwork. Communications Communications is about the transfer of information from a sender, across a distance, to a receiver.Using electricity, radio waves or light, information and dat a in the form of codes are transmitted through a physical medium such as wire, cable, or even the atmosphere. Therefore, in order to make communications possible from computers, across telephones and radios and back to computers and other digital devices again, there must be a signal translator, which we call-a modem. The modem, which is short for modulator or demodulator, converts digital signals into analog and back again into digital signals for information to move across the telephone line. Computer NetworkCommunications 2. 0 MOBILE COMPUTING 2. Definition Mobile computing refers to the use of small and portable computing devices in wireless enabled networks that provide wireless connections to a internet or central main server. These devices include laptops, notebook PCs, tablet PCs, palmtops, personal digital assistant (PDAs) and other hand held devices. A radio-signaling device is installed inside these devices for receiving and transmitting electronic data. Mobile computing has enabled users to remain connected while on the move. High end users can opt for satellite based networking which provides wireless connectivity anywhere in the world.However, this technology is costly and will take many years to become as affordable as Wi-Fi and WiMax. 2. 2Specification, services, and frequencies of Mobile Computing The latest 4G device from  T-mobile is the Samsung Galaxy S  4G. This phone works on T-Mobile's HSPA+ 4G network, which uses a different technical standard than Sprint or Verizon Wireless' 4G networks. The Samsung  Galaxy S 4G  is the wireless carrier's first  smartphone   that is capable of delivering theoretical peak download speeds of up to 21 Mbps while in one of T-Mobile's 4G coverage areas.In addition to fast speeds, the  Galaxy S 4G has a large, 4-inch display, a  Samsung 1GHz Cortex A8 Hummingbird processor, and a preinstalled 16GB microSD memory card. Like other phones in  the Galaxy S line, this phone also has Samsung's  Super AMOLED touchscreen display. 3. 0 INTERNET TECHNOLOGY AND SERVICES 3. 1VoIP VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is refered as the transmission of voice traffic over IP-based networks. There are three ways to connect to a VoIP network which is by using a VoIP telephone, using a normal telephone with a VoIP adapter and using a computer with speakers and microphone. . 2BLOG A blog (web log or weblog) is one of the popular activities on the Internet. Most of these blogs are publicly shared and the autors frequently update the content on a regular basis. Blog is usually referred to the text produced by author about his or her thoughts, experiences or interest. The world of blogging is referred as blogosphere. Another new term is the blogonomics, which refers to people using the blogosphere to generate money. The posts to a blog are usually arranged in this order, the most recent entries will always be on top of the journal. . 0 TYPES of NETWORK 4. 1PAN A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer devices including PCs, laptops, printers, telephones, digital cameras, mobile phone, video game consoles and personal digital assistants, close to one person. PAN may be wired with USB port, Firewire port, Infrared(IrDA) and Bluetooth technologies. Bluetooth is the popular wireless PAN used by most people, especially the mobile phone technologies, and it applies the IEEE 802. 15. 1 standards. 4. 2VPNA Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a network that uses a public telecommunication infrastructure, such as the internet, to remote offices or individuals with secure access to their organisation’s private network. VPN uses tunnelling mechanism to maintain privacy and security of the data. Tunnelling means transmiting data packets across a public network. VPN is often used by companies to provide access from their internal network resources to their home or mobile workers. 4. 3WLAN Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is a t ype of LAN that uses high-frequency radio waves to communicate between nodes.WLAN improves user mobility, speed and scalability to move around within a broad coverage area and still be connected to the network. The IEEE standard for Wireless Lans is 802. 11. 4. 4WIMAX Worlwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is the industry term for broadband wireless access network that is developed based on the IEEE 802. 16 standard. WiMAX is a Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) technology that will connect WiFi hotspots to the Internet and provides a wireless extension to cable and DSL for larger broadband access.WiMAX would operate similar to WiFi but at higher speeds, over greater distances and for a greater number of users. A WiMAX system will have two major parts: * A WiMAX base station, similar in concept to a mobile phone tower. * A WiMAX receiver installed at home. 5. 0 CONCLUSION As a brief conclusion, computer network and communication are expanding rapidly each and e veryday making sharing of information trilion times better before they exist. Mobile computing is now getting edgier by the day. New technologies are being implemented, tested and apply in mobile computing making us and the future another step closer.The internet is also getting better along the lines of the information age. Meanwhile, types of network available for us adding it on top of making computer networks and communications the new best friend. REFERENCE * http://hothardware. com/Reviews/Samsung-Galaxy-S-4G-Review/ * http://blog. propertycrown. com/najib-leaves-for-new-york-seeks-investments/ * http://smklunduictclass. blogspot. com/2012/07/3511-describe-c-types-of-network. html * http://www. escotal. com/Images/computer/PAN. png * http://www. mywistore. com/images/Brent%20Lovett%20060809_WiMax. gif